OMEGA-3 Fatty Acid
EPA and DHA
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The Following Information is Gathered From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Omega-3 fatty acids are a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids which have in common a carbon-carbon double bond in the ω-3 position. (See Nomenclature for terms and discussion of ω (omega) nomenclature.)
Important omega-3 fatty acids in nutrition are: α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). For a more complete list see List of omega-3 fatty acids. The human body cannot synthesize omega-3 fatty acids de novo, but can synthesize all the other necessary omega-3 fatty acids from the simpler omega-3 fatty acid α-linolenic acid. Therefore, α-linolenic acid is an essential nutrient which must be obtained from food, and the other omega-3 fatty acids which can be either synthesized from it within the body or obtained from food are sometimes also referred to as essential nutrients.
EPA
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA or also icosapentaenoic acid) is an omega-3 fatty acid. In physiological literature, it is given the name 20:5(n-3). It also has the trivial name timnodonic acid. Chemically, EPA is a carboxylic acid with a 20-carbon chain and five cis double bonds; the first double bond is located at the third carbon from the omega end.
EPA is a polyunsaturated fatty acid that acts as a precursor for prostaglandin-3 (which inhibits platelet aggregation), thromboxane-3 and leukotriene-5 groups (all eicosanoids). It is obtained in the human diet by eating oily fish or fish oil—cod liver, herring, mackerel, salmon, menhaden and sardine. It is also found in human breast milk.
It is available from some non-animal sources—spirulina and microalgae. Microalgae are being deveolped as a commercial source.[1] EPA is not usually found in higher plants, but it has been reported in trace amounts in purslane.[2]
DHA
Docosahexaenoic acid (commonly known as DHA; 22:6(ω-3), all-cis-docosa-4,7,10,13,16,19-hexaenoic acid; trivial name cervonic acid) is an omega-3 essential fatty acid. Chemically, DHA is a carboxylic acid with a 22-carbon chain and six cis double bonds; the first double bond is located at the third carbon from the omega end.
DHA is most often found in fish oil. Most of the DHA in fish and other more complex organisms originates in microalgae of the genus Schizochytrium, and concentrates in organisms as it moves up the food chain. DHA is also industrialy manufactured from Crypthecodinium cohnii.[1] Most animals make very little DHA metabolically, however small amounts are manufactured internally through the consumption of α-linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid found in chia, flax, and many other seeds and nuts.
DHA is a major fatty acid in sperm and brain phospholipids, and especially in the retina. Dietary DHA can reduce the level of blood triglycerides in humans, which may reduce the risk of heart disease. Low levels of DHA cause reduction of brain serotonin levels[2] and have been associated with ADHD, Alzheimer's disease, and depression, among other diseases, and there is mounting evidence that DHA supplementation may be effective in combating such diseases (see external links at the end of this article).
On September 8, 2006, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration gave "qualified health claim" status to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) omega-3 fatty acids, stating that "supportive but not conclusive research shows that consumption of EPA and DHA omega-3 fatty acids may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease."[2] This updated and modified their health risk advice letter of 2001 (see below).
A 2006 report in the Journal of the American Medical Association concluded that their review of literature covering cohorts from many countries with a wide variety of demographic characteristics failed to demonstrate a link between omega-3 fatty acids and cancer prevention.[3] This is similar to the findings of a review by the British Medical Journal of studies up to February 2002 that failed to find clear effects of long and shorter chain omega-3 fats on total mortality, combined cardiovascular events and cancer.[4]
In April 2006, a team led by Lee Hooper at the University of East Anglia in Norwich, UK, published a review of almost 100 separate studies into omega-3 fatty acids, found in abundance in oily fish. It concluded that they do not have a significant protective effect against cardiovascular disease.[5] This meta-analysis was controversial and stands in stark contrast with two different reviews also performed in 2006 by the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition[6] and a second JAMA review[7] that both indicated decreases in total mortality and cardiovascular incidents (i.e. myocardial infarctions) associated with the regular consumption of fish and fish oil supplements.
Several studies published in 2007 have been more positive. In the March 2007 edition of the journal Atherosclerosis, 81 Japanese men with unhealthy blood sugar levels were randomly assigned to receive 1800 mg daily of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA - an omega-3 essential fatty acid from fish oil) with the other half being a control group. The thickness of the carotid arteries and certain measures of blood flow were measured before and after supplementation. This went on for approximately two years. A total of 60 patients (30 in the EPA group and 30 in the control group) completed the study. Those given the EPA had a statistically significant decrease in the thickness of the carotid arteries along with improvement in blood flow. The authors indicated that this was the first demonstration that administration of purified EPA improves the thickness of carotid arteries along with improving blood flow in patients with unhealthy blood sugar levels.
In another study published in the American Journal of Health System Pharmacy March 2007, patients with high triglycerides and poor coronary artery health were given 4 grams a day of a combination of EPA and DHA along with some monounsaturated fatty acids. Those patients with very unhealthy triglyceride levels (above 500 mg/dl) reduced their triglycerides on average 45% and their VLDL cholesterol by more than 50%. VLDL is a bad type of cholesterol and elevated triglycerides can also be deleterious for cardiovascular health.
There was another study published on the benefits of EPA in the prestigious journal The Lancet in March 2007. This study involved over 18,000 patients with unhealthy cholesterol levels. The patients were randomly assigned to receive either 1,800 mg a day of EPA with a statin drug or a statin drug alone. The trial went on for a total of five years. It was found at the end of the study those patients in the EPA group had superior cardiovascular function. Non-fatal coronary events were also significantly reduced in the EPA group. The authors concluded that EPA is a promising supplement for promoting cardiovascular health.
Another study regarding fish oil was published in the journal Nutrition in April 2007. Sixty four healthy Danish infants received either cow's milk or infant formula alone or with fish oil from nine to twelve months of age. It was found that those infants supplemented with fish oil had improvement in immune function maturation with no apparent reduction in immune activation.
There was yet another study on omega-3 fatty acids just published in the April 2007 Journal of NeuroScience. A group of mice were genetically modified to develop accumulation of amyloid and tau proteins in the brain similar to that seen in people with poor memory. The mice were divided into four groups with one group receiving a typical American diet (with high ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids being 10 to 1). The other three groups were given food with a balanced 1 to 1 omega 6 to omega 3 ratio and two additional groups supplemented with DHA plus long chain omega-6 fatty acids. After three months of feeding, all the DHA supplemented groups were noted to have a lower accumulation of beta amyloid and tau protein. It is felt that these abnormal proteins may contribute to the development of memory loss in later years.
Finally, there was a study published regarding omega-3 supplementation in children with learning and behavioral problems. This study was published in the April 2007 edition of the Journal of the Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics (5), where 132 children, between the ages of seven to twelve years old, with poor learning, participated in a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blinded interventional trial. A total of 104 children completed the trial. For the first fifteen weeks of this study, the children were given polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3 and omega-6, 3000 mg a day), polyunsaturated fatty acids plus multi-vitamins and minerals or placebo. After fifteen weeks, all groups crossed over to the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) plus vitamins and mineral supplement. Parents were asked to rate their children's condition after fifteen and thirty weeks. After thirty weeks, parental ratings of behavior improved significantly in nine out of fourteen scales. The lead author of the study, Dr. Sinn, indicated the present study is the largest PUFA trial to date with children falling in the poor learning and focus range. The results support those of other studies that have found improvement in poor developmental health with essential fatty acid supplementation.[8]
Research in 2005-06 has suggested that the in-vitro anti-inflammatory activity of omega-3 acids translates into clinical benefits. Cohorts of neck pain patients and of rheumatoid arthritis sufferers have demonstrated benefits comparable to those receiving standard NSAIDs[citation needed].
Those who follow a Mediterranean-style diet tend to have higher HDL ("good") cholesterol levels.[9] Similar to those who follow a Mediterranean diet, Arctic-dwelling Inuit - who consume high amounts of omega-3 fatty acids from fatty fish - also tend to have increased HDL cholesterol and decreased triglycerides (fatty material that circulates in the blood). In addition, fish oil supplements containing EPA and DHA have been shown to reduce LDL ("bad") cholesterol and triglycerides. Finally, walnuts (which are rich in ALA) have been shown to lower total cholesterol and triglycerides in people with high cholesterol.[10]
According to an Internet survey, approximately 30% of parents use omega-3 supplements as a therapy for children with autism.[12] There are currently only a few studies on the effectiveness of essential fatty acid supplementation as a treatment of autism and none of these has been well-controlled.[13][14][15][16] Bell and colleagues reported that parents of 18 children with autism who had been supplemented with fish oil for six months described improvements in overall health, cognition, sleep patterns, social interaction, and eye contact.[17] Another case report found that a child with autism given 540 mg of EPA per day over a four week period experienced a complete elimination of his previous anxiety about everyday events as reported by his parents and clinician.[18]
In a study of nearly 9,000 pregnant women, researchers found women who ate fish once a week during their first trimester had 3.6 times less risk of low birth weight and premature birth than those who ate no fish. Low consumption of fish was a strong risk factor for preterm delivery and low birth weight.[19] However, attempts by other groups to reverse this increased risk by encouraging increased pre-natal consumption of fish were unsuccessful.[20]
Omega-3s are known to have membrane-enhancing capabilities in brain cells.[5] One medical explanation is that omega-3s play a role in the fortification of the myelin sheaths. Not coincidentally, omega-3 fatty acids comprise approximately eight percent of the average human brain according to Dr. David Horrobin, a pioneer in fatty acid research. Ralph Holman of the University of Minnesota, another major researcher in studying essential fatty acids, who gave it the name, surmised how omega-3 components are analogous to the human brain by stating that "DHA is structure, EPA is function."
A benefit of omega-3s is helping the brain to repair damage by promoting neuronal growth.[5] In a six-month study involving people with schizophrenia and Huntington's disease who were treated with EPA or a placebo, the placebo group had clearly lost cerebral tissue, while the patients given the supplements had a significant increase of grey and white matter.[21]
Consequently, the past decade of omega-3 fatty acid research has procured some Western interest in omega-3s as being a legitimate 'brain food.' Still, recent claims that one's intelligence quotient, psychological tests measuring certain cognitive skills, including numerical and verbal reasoning skills, are increased on account of omega-3s consumed by pregnant mothers remain unreliable and controversial. An even more significant focus of research, however, lies in the role of omega-3s as a non-prescription treatment for certain psychiatric and mental diagnoses and has become a topic of much research and speculation.
In 1998, Andrew L. Stoll, MD and his colleagues at Harvard University conducted a small double-blind placebo-controlled study in thirty patients diagnosed with bipolar disorder. Over the course of nine months, he gave 15 subjects capsules containing olive oil, and another 15 subjects capsules containing nine grams of pharmaceutical-quality EPA and DHA. In doing so, he was able to make the general distinction between the placebo group failing to improve while the Omega-3 group experienced a noticeable degree of recovery. Though Stoll believes that the 1999 experiment was not as optimal as it could have been and has accordingly pursued further research, the foundation has been laid for more researchers to explore the theoretical association between absorbed omega-3s and signal transduction inhibition in the brain.[22]
"Several epidemiological studies suggest covariation between seafood consumption and rates of mood disorders. Biological marker studies indicate deficits in omega-3 fatty acids in people with depressive disorders, while several treatment studies indicate therapeutic benefits from omega-3 supplementation. A similar contribution of omega-3 fatty acids to coronary artery disease may explain the well-described links between coronary artery disease and depression. Deficits in omega-3 fatty acids have been identified as a contributing factor to mood disorders and offer a potential rational treatment approach." (American Journal of Psychiatry 163:1098-1100, June 2006)
In 2006, a review of published trials in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition found the evidence in those trials "provides little support" for the use of fish or the n–3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids contained in them to improve depressed mood. The review recommended larger trials be performed.[23]
Early humans evolved eating inter-tidal shellfish, while living a shoreline existence in Africa.[26] Now, as then, inter-tidal herbivorous shellfish such as mussels and clams can help people reach a healthy balance of omega-3 and omega-6 fats in their diets.[26][27]
The most widely available source of EPA and DHA is cold water oily fish such as wild salmon, herring, mackerel, anchovies and sardines. The oil from these fish have a profile of around seven times as much omega-3 as omega-6. Farmed salmon, being grain fed, have a higher proportion of omega-6 than wild salmon. Other oily fish such as tuna also contain omega-3 in somewhat lesser amounts. Consumers of oily fish should be aware of the potential presence of heavy metals and fat-soluble pollutants like PCBs and dioxins which may accumulate up the food chain.[28] Some supplement manufacturers remove heavy metals and other contaminants from the oil through various means, such as molecular distillation (see above), which increases purity, potency and safety.
Even some forms of fish oil may not be optimally digestible. Of four studies that compare bioavailability of the triglyceride form of fish oil vs. the ester form, two have concluded that the natural triglyceride form is better, and the other two studies did not find a significant difference. No studies have shown the ester form to be superior although it is cheaper to manufacture.[29][30]
Although fish is a dietary source of omega-3 fatty acids, fish do not synthesize them; they obtain them from the algae in their diet. For this reason, there is often a significant difference in EPA and DHA concentrations in farmed vs wild caught fish.[citation needed]
Flax (aka linseed) (Linum usitatissimum) and its oil are perhaps the most widely available botanical source of omega-3. Flaxseed oil consists of ca. 55% ALA (alpha-linolenic acid). Flax, like chia, contains approximately three times as much omega-3 as omega-6.
15 grams of flaxseed oil provides ca. 8 grams of ALA, which is converted in the body to EPA and then DHA at an efficiency of (2%-15%), and (2%-5%) respectively.[31]
Check out Chia Seeds Chia has the highest levels of Omega-3 in any plant
The table lists omega-3 content as the percentage of ALA in the seed oil, unless otherwise noted.
| Common name | Alternate name | Linnaean name | % Omega-3 | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chia | chia sage | Salvia hispanica | 64% | [32] |
| Kiwifruit | Chinese gooseberry | Actinidia chinensis | 62% | [32] |
| Perilla | shiso | Perilla frutescens | 58% | [32] |
| Flax | linseed | Linum usitatissimum | 55% | [32] |
| Lingonberry | cowberry | Vaccinium vitis-idaea | 49% | [32] |
| Camelina | Gold-of-pleasure | Camelina sativa | 36% | [32] |
| Purslane | portulaca | Portulaca oleracea | 35% | [32] |
Eggs produced by chickens fed a diet of greens and insects produce higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids than chickens fed corn or soybeans.[33]
Krill, which are small, shrimp-like zooplankton, also contain the omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA. One advantage of extracting omega-3s from krill, as opposed to sources higher in the food chain, is that krill contain fewer heavy metals and PCBs harmful to humans.[citation needed] However, in comparison to higher animals, they also contain fewer omega-3 fatty acids per gram.[citation needed]
Meat from grass-fed animals is often higher in omega-3 than meat from the corresponding grain-fed animal.[citation needed] The omega-6 to omega-3 ratio of grass-fed beef is about 2:1, making it a more useful source of omega-3 than grain-fed beef, which usually has a ratio of 4:1.[34] Commercially available lamb is almost always grass-fed, and subsequently higher in omega-3 than other common meat sources.[citation needed] Milk and cheese from grass-fed cows may also be good sources of omega-3. One UK study showed that half a pint of milk provides 10% of the recommended daily intake (RDI) of ALA, while a piece of organic cheese the size of a matchbox may provide up to 88%".[35]
The microalgae Crypthecodinium cohnii and Schizochytrium are rich sources of DHA (22:6 ω-3) and can be produced commercially in bioreactors. Oil from brown algae (kelp) is a source of EPA.
Acai palm fruit also contains omega-3 fatty acids.
Omega-3 capsules are sold in bottles for daily intake as supplements.
Walnuts are also a good source, as they are one of few nuts that contain a meaningful amount of omega-3s.
Note
Omega-6 fatty acids are fatty acids where the term "omega-6" signifies that the first double bond in the carbon backbone of the fatty acid, occurs in the omega minus 6 position; that is, the sixth carbon from the end of the fatty acid. See essential fatty acids for more detail on the naming system.
The biological effects of the ω-6 fatty acids are largely mediated by their interactions with the ω-3 fatty acids, see Essential fatty acid interactions for detail.
Linoleic acid (18:2), the shortest chain omega-6 fatty acid is an essential fatty acid. Arachidonic acid (20:4) is a physiologically significant n-6 fatty acid and is the precursor for prostaglandins and other physiologically active molecules.
Some medical research has suggested that excessive levels of omega-6 acids, relative to Omega-3 fatty acids, may increase the probability of a number of diseases and depression. Modern Western diets typically have ratios of omega-6 to omega-3 in excess of 10 to 1, some as high as 30 to 1. The optimal ratio is thought to be 4 to 1 or lower. [1]
Dietary sources of omega-6 fatty acids include:
Disclaimer: These statements have not been evaluated by the FDA and are not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, nor is this information meant to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease.
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